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This book covers virtually all the significant Russian thinkers from the age of Catherine the Great Down to the eve of the Revolution.
From the end of the Mongol Empire to today, Russian history is a tale of cultural, political, economic and military interaction with Western powers. The depth of this relationship has created a geopolitical dilemma: Russia has persistently been both attracted to and at odds with Western ideas and technological development,.
More than 'utopian' novels are published in Russia every year. These utopias — meaning here fantasy fiction, science fiction, space operas or alternative history — do not set out merely to titillate; instead they express very real Russian anxieties: be they territorial right-sizing, loss of imperial status or turning into a 'colony'. The Oxford Handbook of Russian Religious Thought is an authoritative new reference and interpretive volume detailing the origins, development, and influence of one of the richest aspects of Russian cultural and intellectual life - its religious ideas.
After setting the historical background and context, the Handbook follows the leading figures. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search SpringerLink Search. Rights and permissions Reprints and Permissions. Copy to clipboard. Some of the language from Berlin's letter to Kennan does appear in "Two Concepts of Liberty", but the overall approach is different, in some ways strik- ingly so. Personhood, it seems clear, is the value that negative liberty seeks to protect, through the rule of law and human rights; it, in other words, is the ulti- mate justification for negative liberty.
Berlin does not directly say this but rather skirts around it. He writes, "We must preserve a minimum area of personal freedom if we are not to 'degrade or deny our nature'. What then must the minimum be? That which a man cannot give up without offending against the essence of his human nature.
What is this essence? What are the standards which it entails? This has been, and perhaps always will be, a matter of infinite debate". Isaiah Berlin, Liberty, ed. Henry Hardy Oxford University Press, , pp.
Foole In his essay Berlin is also highly ambivalent about Kant. On the one hand he uses Kantian language, and language from his letter to Kennan, in discussing the dangers of positive liberty. Hamburg quotes from the relevant passage: To manipulate men, to propel them towards goals which you—the social re- former—see, but they may not, is to deny their human essence, to treat them as objects without wills of their own, and therefore to degrade them.
That is why to lie to men. In the name of what can I ever be justified in forcing men to do what they have not willed or consented to? Only in the name of some value higher than themselves. But if, as Kant held, all values are made so by the free acts of men, and called values only so far as they are this, there is no value higher than the individual.
The basis for this odd view is Kant's theory of moral freedom, which states that we can follow our conscience and do what we ought to rather than give in to our sensuous inclinations and impulses. The ex- ercise of this freedom is part of self-realization and, according to Kant, our link to the noumenal world.
Moral freedom does not, of course, diminish the impor- tance of negative liberty, which Kant firmly upholds, as Berlin himself is forced to admit. In this way, with positive liberty, "self-realization" actually becomes "other-realization", that is, another's realization of whom I should be and his forcing me to become it. To hold Kant responsible for this transformation is preposterous.
Worse, it denies Berlin his surest philosophical ally, since authentic self-realization i. Berlin's association of positive liberty with "self-realization" badly obscures this point.
Sometimes self-realization really is self-realization, not "other-realization", and when it is we are talking about negative liberty.
We have seen that in his letter to Kennan he confessed to a certain reluctance to face the fundamental moral issue, human dignity. Possibly because he realized it would take him to the realm of metaphysics. Similar motivations may explain '"Ibid. Isaiah Berlin and Andrzej Walicki as Intellectual Historians and Liberal Philosophers 79 his use of the term "value pluralism", as if that makes any sense without the underlying absolute value of the human person.
To this whole set of problems, Walicki's approach is, I believe, more straightforward and consistent than Berlin's. A child—innocent or not—cannot be sacrificed for the happiness of all humanity because it would be immoral.
There is no other way of putting it. The absolute value of every human person is an irreducible moral idea. Walicki's teacher Sergius Hessen referred to this as the "autonomy of the good", and drew from it theistic conclusions, as did the other neo-idealist philosophers about whom Walicki writes in Legal Philoso- phies of Russian Liberalism. For them, recognizing that human persons are absolute entailed recognizing the Absolute.
It may well be that their legal philosophies are so powerful precisely because they had so keen an appreciation of the absolute value of what they were trying to protect. So does their historian. Gary Hamburg closes his essay with some reflections on "serendipity, pain and wisdom".
Here he brings to bear the approaches of intellectual history to explain the similar Weltanschauungen of Berlin and Walicki in Let me respond, and conclude, by quoting one of my favorite Russian philosophers, Sergei Trubetskoi. In he wrote the following words, ones with which I'm sure Professor Hamburg will wholeheartedly agree: "Genius cannot be ex- plained without the historical conditions within which it acts and develops.
But its whole peculiarity consists precisely in the fact that it cannot be explained by them alone.
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